Cosmology and Creation Myths within the Upaniṣadic Texts
तत्त्वमसि
Tat Tvam Asi // Thou Art That - Chandogya Upaniṣad 6.8.7
Composed just prior to the Buddhist revival, around 600 or 500 BCE, the early Upaniṣads find their creation in northern India, bounded by the upper Indus valley to the west, the lower Ganges region to the east, the Himalayan foothills to the north, and the Vindhya mountain range to the south. Originally transmitted orally in Sanskrit, the Upaniṣads represent a significant portion of Vedānta (end of the Vedas) literature and stand as profound repositories of spiritual wisdom and inquiry. While some scholars suggest that the total number of Upaniṣads may exceed 200, the canonical Upaniṣads amount to 108, with the first dozen or so being the mukhya (principal or main) texts.
These texts contain some of the earliest discussions on profound philosophical concepts such as ātman (the self), brahman (ultimate reality), karma, and yoga. Additionally, they delve into topics like saṃsāra (cyclic existence), mokṣa (enlightenment), puruṣa (spirit), and prakṛti (nature), all of which remain central to the philosophical vocabulary of later traditions. The term Upaniṣad (उपनिषद्) itself is a culmination of three Sanskrit words: upa उप (down), ni नि (near), and ṣad षद् (sit). “Sit down near” aptly encapsulates the essence of the Upaniṣads, which comprise recorded dialogues between pairs - be they a gurū & student, husband & wife, or any duo intentionally gathered for such profound exchanges. While the authorship of most Upaniṣads is unknown, “the Vedic texts assert that they were skillfully created by ṛṣis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot”.
Central to the Upaniṣadic worldview are cosmological concepts and creation stories that offer insights into the nature of existence and humanity’s relationship with the divine. This paper embarks on a comparative analysis of cosmology and creation myths within the Upaniṣadic texts, aiming to shed light on their significance and philosophical implications. By analyzing key themes and narratives across select Upaniṣads, this study seeks to elucidate different perspectives of the universe and nature of reality. Through this comparative analysis, we will explore common motifs, philosophical divergences, and overarching themes.
Key Philosophical Themes in the Upaniṣads
The Upaniṣads, while varied in their composition, give us crucial definitions, concepts, and philosophical stances that later schools draw upon. Among these foundational concepts are:
Ātman: The essential self or soul, ātman represents the innermost essence of an individual, often described as identical to Brahman, the ultimate reality.
Brahman: The supreme cosmic principle, Brahman transcends all dualities and distinctions, serving as the unchanging, infinite source and sustainer of the universe.
Karma: “Derived from the verbal root kṛ…, karma is the nominative singular form of the neuter word karman, which means ‘act, action, performance, deed.”... strictly speaking, karma is no more than action itself”. It is important, especially with the backdrop of popularized western beliefs surrounding the word “karma”, that we approach the Upaniṣads with the understanding that karma carries neither positive or negative implications.
Saṃsāra: The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, saṃsāra represents the perpetual cycle of existence, characterized by suffering and conditioned by karma and ignorance.
Yoga: A path to spiritual realization and union between the self and the divine.
Mokṣa: The ultimate goal of spiritual liberation, mokṣa signifies freedom from the cycle of saṃsāra and the realization of one's true nature as identical to Brahman.
These foundational concepts form the backdrop against which the Upaniṣads explore inquiries into the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate truth.
Key Cosmological Themes in the Upaniṣads
The Upaniṣads offer a rich tapestry of creation myths and cosmological frameworks, each presenting unique perspectives on the origin and structure of the universe. Nonetheless, these cosmological narratives converge on several recurring themes. Consciousness stands out as the force driving all creation, illustrating the profound link between awareness, desire, and the manifest world. Creation unfolds as a cyclical process, encompassing periods of manifestation, sustenance, and dissolution—an eternal recurrence. These narratives also emphasize a cosmic unity between Ātman (the self) and Brahman (ultimate reality); creation emerges when there is unity between Ātman and Brahman. The Upaniṣads delve into a hierarchical perspective of existence, delineating various levels of reality from the physical to the metaphysical. Moreover, the significance of sacrifice and ritual in cosmogony symbolizes the interconnectedness of all existence, offering profound insights into the nature of reality and the origins of the universe.
Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad Creation Myths
The Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad offers several creation stories, with a suggested reading sequence that makes chronological sense: beginning with brahmana two, followed by brahmana one. In brahmana two, we encounter Death yearning for a self, from which arises water, transforming into froth and solidifying to form the earth. Death generates fire from tapas (heat), dividing himself into fire, sun, and wind, with his head in the east, his tails in the west, flanks in the south and north, sky as his back, atmosphere as his belly, and earth as his chest. Time and all earthly elements are then created, eventually consumed by Death after cycles of creation and sacrifice. Ultimately, Death desires to become a sacrifice himself, metamorphosing into a sacrificial horse for Aśva-medha (horse sacrifice).
Returning to brahmana one, the cosmic horse sacrifice symbolizes the entire universe:
“Om! Verily the dawn is the head of the sacrificial horse; the sun, his eye; the wind, his breath; universal fire, his open mouth. The year is the body (ātman) of the sacrificial horse; the sky, his back; the atmosphere, his belly; the earth, the underpart of this belly; the quarters, his flanks; the intermediate quarters, his ribs; the seasons, his limbs; the months and half months, his joints; days and nights, his feet; the stars, his bones; the clouds, his flesh. Sand is the food in the stomach; rivers are his entrails. His liver and lungs are the mountains, plants and trees, his hair. The east is his fore part; the west, his hind part. When he yawns, then it lightens. When he shakes himself, then it thunders. When he urinates, then it rains. Voice, indeed, is his voice (1:1)”
These narratives showcase parallels, notably in the alignment of body parts with elements of the manifest universe, emphasizing the cosmic unity between Ātman and Brahman, and the creation emerging from their union. Furthermore, the notion of sacrifice and ritual within these interconnected stories further emphasizes the unity between Ātman and Brahman. The practice of ritualistic sacrifice, in these stories, leads to the creation of the world. By sacrificing the physical, individuals symbolically align themselves with the cosmic order, affirming their connection to Ātman and Brahman. Through ritual, the boundaries between the individual and the divine dissolve, highlighting the unity of all existence.
In brahmana four of the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad, another captivating creation story unfolds, depicting Ātman alone in human form. Recognizing himself, he first utters "I am," giving rise to consciousness. Initially depicted as a man and a woman closely embracing, Ātman splits into two entities out of a longing for companionship, leading to the creation of the human race. The story further details the transformation of the female into various animals, followed by the male's pursuit and copulation, resulting in the creation of all species.
In summary, the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad unveils a tapestry of creation myths that resonate with profound symbolism and philosophical depth. These narratives elucidate the intricate relationship between Ātman, puruṣa, and Brahman, echoing the eternal cycle of creation, sustenance, and dissolution. Through the lens of sacrifice and ritual, the Upaniṣads illuminate the unity between individual consciousness and the cosmic order.
Chāndogya Upaniṣad Creation Myths
In contrast to the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad, whose creation myths are positioned at the beginning of the text, the creation stories in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad are presented later and are relatively concise. The creation narrative in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad commences with the world existing in a primal state, eventually evolving into an egg that, after a year, divides into two halves - the silver bottom half representing the earth, and the gold top half symbolizing the sky. From this egg emerge various elements of the universe, including the sky, air, fire, water, and earth, establishing the foundational elements of creation. The narrative underscores Brahman's creative potency and underscores the interconnectedness of all existence with the divine source.
In the second khaṇḍa of this Upaniṣad, the author expounds that in the beginning, the world simply existed (sat). While some may perceive this state as asat (non-being), the author elucidates that sat could not emerge from asat, hence the world remained in a state of being. Out of the desire for growth and multiplicity, the world produced heat, which in turn gave rise to water, leading to the production of food. Creation emerges from desire, and the union of Āsat and Brahman precipitates creation.
Aitareya Upaniṣad Creation Myths
Similar to select narratives in the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka and Chāndogya Upaniṣads, in the Aitareya Upaniṣad, Ātman is portrayed as the solitary force in the cosmos. Through his consciousness, Ātman engages in the act of creation. The Aitareya Upaniṣad expounds on this creative process, detailing the formation of various worlds, such as ambhas (water), marīci (light rays), mara (death), and ap (the waters). Following the establishment of these realms, guardians were fashioned in the likeness of humans.
These human guardians were endowed with sense organs that correspond to different elements, symbolizing the profound connection between our physical bodies and the natural world; the unity of Ātman and Brahman. For instance, the mouth and speech are associated with fire, the nostrils and breath with wind, the eyes and sight with the sun, the ears and hearing with the quarters of heaven, the skin and hairs with plants and trees, the heart and the mind with the moon, and the navel and exhale with death. This intricate correlation underscores the interwoven relationship, and union, between the divine and the material aspects of existence.
The Role of Desire in Ātman and Brahman
The Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka, Chāndogya, and Aitareya Upaniṣads share striking similarities within their creation story’s portrayal of desire, Ātman, and Brahman. Desire emerges as a powerful creative force in all of the narratives, serving as the catalyst for the cosmic processes leading to creation. In the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad, desire drives the emergence of consciousness within Ātman, leading to the subsequent creation of the human race through a process of self-duplication. The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, on the other hand, accentuates desire as the force behind the production of heat, water, and food, ultimately culminating in the act of creation. And, the Aitareya Upaniṣad desire drives the creation of various worlds, followed by the human race, in the form of guardians of those worlds. Concurrently, all three Upaniṣads converge on the concept of Ātman as the solitary force in the cosmos, intimately linked with the act of creation. In the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad, Ātman recognizes itself, initiating the profound utterance "I am," marking the inception of consciousness. This recognition leads to the splitting of Ātman into dual entities, giving rise to the human race. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, while the specific role of Ātman in creation is not explicitly delineated, the text implies a deep connection between Ātman and Brahman, the ultimate reality. Moreover, both Upaniṣads converge on Brahman as the cosmic source and ultimate reality. In the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad, Brahman's creative power manifests through its role in the creation of the cosmos, while the Chāndogya and Aitareya Upaniṣads highlight Brahman's association with the primal state of existence and its instrumental role in the emergence of various elemental components. Thus, while these Upaniṣads share fundamental concepts, subtle nuances in their portrayal of desire, Ātman, and Brahman contribute to the richness of their respective cosmogonies.
The Role of Nature in Ātman and Brahman
Through mystical narratives, the Upaniṣads illustrate how elements of nature mirror aspects of the human self. The Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad tells a story of human guardians endowed with sense organs corresponding to different elements, highlighting the profound correlation between the human body and the natural world. The association of the mouth and speech with fire, the nostrils and breath with wind, and the eyes and sight with the sun symbolizes the interconnectedness of the elemental forces within our physical bodies, reflecting the belief in the essential oneness of all existence.
Similarly, with the depiction of the cosmic horse, where each part of the sacrificial horse symbolizes the elements of the manifest universe, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad emphasizes the unity between the microcosm of the individual self and the macrocosm of the universe. This intricate symbolism in the narrative highlights the intimate connection between the human experience and the cosmic order; there is inherent unity between Ātman and Brahman.
Furthermore, the Aitareya Upaniṣad expounds on the creative process of Ātman, depicting the formation of various worlds and the establishment of guardians fashioned in the likeness of humans. This creative choice reflects the inherent interconnectedness between Ātman and the natural world, with each realm symbolizing different elemental aspects of existence. The portrayal of Ātman as the solitary force in the cosmos further establishes the unity of the individual self with universal consciousness, emphasizing the inseparability of the self from nature.
Conclusion
Central to the Upaniṣadic worldview are cosmological narratives and creation myths that offer profound insights into the nature of existence and humanity's relationship with the divine. Across texts such as the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka, Chāndogya, and Aitareya Upaniṣads, desire emerges as a potent creative force driving the cosmic processes leading to creation. These narratives underscore the fundamental interconnectedness between consciousness, desire, and the manifest world, elucidating the intimate relationship between Ātman and Brahman.
Furthermore, the Upaniṣads illustrate how elements of nature mirror aspects of the human self, symbolizing the profound correlation between the human body and the natural world. Through intricate symbolism, the Upaniṣads depict the unity between the microcosm of the individual self and the macrocosm of the universe, highlighting the inseparability of Ātman and nature.
The Upaniṣads offer a rich tapestry of philosophical inquiry and spiritual insight, inviting readers to explore the depths of consciousness and the nature of reality. Through their timeless wisdom and profound teachings, the Upaniṣads continue to inspire seekers on the path of self-discovery and spiritual realization, transcending the boundaries of time and culture to illuminate the eternal truths of existence.
Works Cited
Chapple, Christopher. Karma and creativity. New York: State University of New York Press, 1986.
Hume, Robert Ernest. The thirteen principal upanishads: Translated from the Sanskrit. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Scharfe, Hartmut. Education in Ancient India. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
Illustrations
Artist unknown, Preparing the Army to Follow the Sacrificial Horse, 19th century, opaque watercolor on paper, Stella Kramrisch Collection, 1994.
